Both mAbs and pAbs have their own distinct characteristics and advantages. Monoclonal antibodies exhibit high specificity and are less prone to cross-reactivity. Once a hybridoma cell line or recombinant expression system is successfully established, theoretically unlimited production can be achieved, which ensures the stability of supply and the possibility of large-scale application. The advantage of polyclonal antibodies is that they can recognize multiple epitopes, which are especially suitable for detecting less abundant proteins, and can play a natural role in signal amplification in some detection methods.

JC-1 (also known as CBIC2 (3)) is a fluorescent probe used to detect mitochondrial membrane potential (Δ Ψm). Its molecular formula is C25H27Cl4IN4, molecular weight is 652.23, CAS number is 3520-43-2, and purity is over 95%. This substance is widely used for membrane potential detection in cells, tissues, or purified mitochondria.

Endosomes are formed by the invagination of the plasma membrane to form vesicles in an effort to recycle components of the cell (1). Endosomes can be coated in clathrin when vesicles form at clathrin-coated pits (2). Caveolins are 21-24 kDa integral proteins that interact with cholesterol and are the main structural components of the cholesterol/sphingolipid-enriched plasma membrane caveolae (3). Each stage of endosome maturation is marked by a unique set of proteins. EEA1 is an early endosome marker that is essential for membrane fusion and trafficking (4). Members of the ras superfamily of small Rab GTPases, specifically Rab5, Rab7, and Rab11 are markers of the early, late and recycling endosomes (5).

Mitochondrial acyl carrier protein (ACP) is an essential component in fatty acid biosynthesis in mitochondria. It is also known as NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase subunit AB1 (NDUFAB1), a Complex I subunit in the electron transport chain (ETC). NDUFAB1 regulates energy and reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism in mitochondria by coordinating the assembly of ETC Complexes I, II, and III, and supercomplexes (1). NDUFS1 (NADH dehydrogenase Fe-S protein 1) is a nuclear-encoded structural subunit of NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase (Complex I) in the mitochondrial ETC (2). Mutations in NDUFS1 and other Complex I subunits leading to mitochondrial dysfunction are associated with a number of neurological disorders (3-6).

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a cell surface associated three-dimensional macromolecular network composed of collagens, proteoglycans/glycosaminoglycans, elastin, fibronectin, laminins, and several other glycoproteins. The network provides a dynamic microenvironment surrounding the cell enabling it to carry on its function.

The IGF family consists mainly of two low-molecular-weight protein (IGF-1 and IGF-2), the corresponding receptors (IGF-1R and IGF-2R) and specific binding proteins.

Ubiquitinating enzymes (UBEs) catalyze protein ubiquitination, a reversible process countered by deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB) action . CYLD deubiquitinase regulates inflammation and cell proliferation by down regulating NF-κB signaling through removal of ubiquitin chains from several NF-κB pathway proteins .

The corresponding monoclonal antibody production technology has experienced the continuous development and improvement from the pioneering of hybridoma technology to phage display technology, transgenic animal technology and single B cell technology.

Methylation of DNA at cytosine residues in mammalian cells is a heritable, epigenetic modification that is critical for proper regulation of gene expression, genomic imprinting and development (1,2). Three families of mammalian DNA methyltransferases have been identified: DNMT1, DNMT2, and DNMT3 (1,2).

The tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) is a group of proteins that play a wide and important role in biology. Currently, 19 ligands have been identified in this family, such as TNF-α, TNF-β, CD40L, FasL, TRAIL, RANKL, etc., and 29 receptors correspond to them.